EDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIA

EDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIA

VEDIC SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

            The system of education which was developed during Vedic period is termed as the Vedic system of education. The administration and organization of education remained almost the same, throughout the Vedic period, but with the advancement of time, knowledge, art and skills, its curriculum and teaching methods underwent a change. The main features of Vedic system of education may be summarized in the following sequence.

Administration and Finance of Education

1. Free from state control:

            The education was completely under the individual control of the ‘Gurus’ and not on the state control.

2. Free Education

            The gurus themselves arranged for lodging and boarding of the students. The students, of course, used to pay guru dakshina to their teachers according to their financial position and volition.

3. Sources of Income: Donation, Dan, Guru Dakshina:

The kings, emperors and affluent sections of the society voluntarily gave donations in the form of land, animals, grains, clothes, utensils, money of these gurugulas. The students begged alms from society of meet the day to day needs of the gurugulas. The third source of income of the gurugulas was guru dakshana. On the completion of education, students paid guru dakshina according to individual volition which could be land, animals, grains, clothes or money.

Aims of Education

1. Inculcating Religion

            Preaching religion was the major function of literature and culture of ancient India. Religion was predominant in every sphere of life. So it may be said, the ancient India was built up in religions much more than in political, economic and social field.

2. Salvation

            The ultimate aim of human society of that age was the achievement of absolute (Brahma) which he himself is, and it was recognized that the entire visible world in fully pervaded with the absolute. The popular belief in India is that gaining knowledge will also lead to salvation.

3. Development of Knowledge

            It was the chide aim of education during Vedic period. Knowledge was considered to be the third eye of man. The two eyes merely help us to preserve the concrete and material world whereas the third eye enables us to comprehend the material and the metaphysical world both. It sifts of the fact from fiction, clarifies the do’s and don’ts and enlightens the path to physical and spiritual achievements.

4. Acquaintance and observance of social and national duties

            This is the fourth chief aim of Vedic period education. The students were mad conversant with their duties towards the society and the nation and they were duly trained in their observance. The Samavartan ceremony was held at the completion of education.

5. Preservation and Development of Culture

            Our culture, since inception, has been religion oriented. Out mode of living, food habits customs and traditions and values all were based on religion. Therefore the aim of education during Vedic period was the preservation and transmission of our culture.

6. Moral and Character Development

            During Vedic period character building meant to train people to behave according to religion and to provide proper direction to their conduct and thinking on the basis of religion. For the moral and character development of the children, they were educated in religion and ethics, since inception. They were trained in activities like observance of celibacy, control of sense organs and self-control.

7. Education of Livelihood, Arts and Skills

            The students were educated in agriculture, cattle rearing and other crafts and skills according to their ability. However in the later Vedic period the occupation based caste system was replaced by caste based occupation as a result of which people were them educated according to their caste. The Brahmins were trained in religious activities and teaching, the Kshatriyas (warriors) in administration and war, and the Vaishyas (Business class) in agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and commerce.

Curriculum

            The curriculum of education during Vedic period was divided into two forms – Materialistic, Spiritual.

1. Material Curriculum

            It included language, grammar, numerology, agriculture, cattle rearing, arts(music and dance), skills (weaving, dying, woodwork, metal work, craft), economics, politics, geology, physiology, snake science, logic, astrology, medical science, military science, exercise, exercise, gurukal organization.

2. Spiritual Curriculum

            It included education of Vedic literature, theology and ethics and training in activities like control of sense organs, religion based conduct, mode of worship, evening prayers etc.

Methods of Teaching

            Two methods of teaching were being practiced during the Vedic period. The first method was oral and the second was based on thinking and reflection.

Oral Method : In oral method, the students were to memorize the mantras and Richayas (verses of Rigveda) in order that there might not be changed wrongly and they might remain preserved in the original forms. In the oral method correct pronunciation was specially emphasized. It is meant for average students.

Thinking Method: Through this an attempt was made to preserve the Veda mantras and Richyas (Vedic Verses).

Manas (reflection) method:

            It was a higher method of teaching than thinking. Mantras were developed and preserved in one’s own mind. This method was used to encouraged intelligent students by guiding then to make research.

Teachers

            During Vedic period, very scholarly, self-studious, religious and persons of good character could become teachers. Besides being scholarly they used to have extreme self-control. They occupied the highest place in the society and were established as gods.

Duties of teachers towards students:

1. To make arrangement for student’s lodging, food and clothing etc.
2. To look after the health of the students and arrange treatment in case of falling ill.
3. To compulsorily impart education in language, religion and ethics.
4. To teach students good conduct and build their character.
5. To inspire students towards activities work doing and prevent them from undesirable activities.

Students

      During Vedic period only unmarried students were admitted in gurugulas. The students were called Brahmachari. They had to observe celibacy, eat simple and pure food, wear simple clothes and to abstain from intoxications.

Students’ Duties towards teachers

1. To look after the cleanliness of gurugal and its complete arrangements.
2. To clean the teachers residence and arrange for teacher’s worship.
3. To seek alms for teacher and other residents of the gurukul.
4. To massage the feet of the teacher before going to bed.
5. To abide by the orders of the teacher with devotion.

Discipline

            In the early Vedic period, discipline meant physical, mental, spiritual control. Physical control required to observance of celibacy abstain form vanity, using fragrance, entertainment through dance, music, intoxicants, gambling, killing cow, telling lies and backbiting.

            Mental control referred to control of sense organs. Spiritual control meant identifying the form of soul, perceiving similar identity in all and working for universal welfare.

Teacher – Student Relationship

            During Vedic period the teachers and students enjoyed a cordial relationship. The teachers considered the students as their son and the students regarded teachers as their father. Affection flowed from above and devotion steamed from below.

Conclusion

            In retrospect it may be said that the Vedic system of education was the best system of education in contemporary world but from the point of view of the present Indian society some of its aspects are worth adopting, while some are to be given up.

 Buddhist SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Introduction

Buddhism was born in India and was started by Gautam Buddha who was an Indian prince of Sakya Dynasty of Kshatriyas. No doubt, many principles of ‘Hinduism’ are included in ‘Buddhism’. It is also true that ‘Buddhism’ was the result of the prevailing circumstance of life. Gautam Buddha taught the principle of a religion which was based on the analysis of actual problem of life. In fact, he gave a new form to the religion.

Principle of Buddhism or four noble truth

      Our principles of Gautam the great were

1)      There is suffering

2)      Desire is the causes of suffering

3)      There is cessation of suffering

4)      There is a way to destroy sufferings

PABBAJA CEREMONY

            Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddihist monastery. Pabbaja means ‘going out’. According to this ceremony the student after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and family relationship. For the pabbaja ceremony the minimum age was eight years. For this the individual had to get his head full shaved and put on yellow clothes. In this shape he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation this individual would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bhikshu would administer the basic advices which were as below:

1. I take refugee with Buddha
2. I take refugee with religion
3. I take refugee with the order.

 UPASAMPADA

            After completing the education of twelve years, the monk at the age of 20 years had to undergo the ‘Upasampada’ ritual and then be becomes the permanent members of the ‘Sangh’. On this occasions all his worldly and family relationship ended.

Aims of Education

1. Physical Development

            According to Buddha, good health helps a man to escape from bodily suffering. So he gave importance for physical development.

2. Development of knowledge

            To achieve Nirvana, they emphasized on the development of true knowledge. In Buddhist period the practical knowledge of the material world and of the four noble truths were regarded as the true knowledge.

3. Education of social behaviour

            Buddhist religion is a supporter of human welfare. This is the reason that too much emphasis was placed upon compassion and kindness.

4. Preservation and Development of human culture

            Buddhist religion emphasizes the preservation of human culture as a whole. For that, they encourage  the study of other religions, cultures and philosophies.

5. Character formation

            They gave too much importance on self control compassion and kindness and those who practice, these ideals possesses good character.

6. Vocational Development

            To overcome the sufferings of hunger, education of art, skills and vocation is necessary.

7. Education of Buddhist religion

            Students were trained in the eight fold path namely-Right view, Right resolve, Right occupation, Right speech, Right behaviour, Right effort, Right contemplation and Right meditation to achieve salvation 

Curriculum of Education

            In Buddhist education primary, higher and Bhikshu education were organized in Maths and Vihars and as they were under the control of Buddhist Sanghs.

Curriculum of primary Education

            Duration of primary education was 6 years. Reading, writing, five different sciences namely Morphology, Astronomy, Medicine, logic and spirituality were taught.

1.      Curriculum of Higher Education

Duration of higher education was generally of 12 years. During this period a general knowledge of grammar, religion, astrology, ayurved and philosophy was imparted to students. Special education included Pali, Prakit and Sanskrit languages along with their grammar and literature and such subjects as astrophysics, cosmology, jurisprudence, political science, economics, arts, skills, vocations, architecture, Buddhist, Jain and Vedic religions, theology, logic.

2.      Curriculum of Bhikshu Education

Duration of Bhikshu education was 8 years but those Bhikshu who intended to acquire higher knowledge in Buddhist religion and philosophy could continue their education further.

            Both worldly and religious education are concerned initially imparted but at higher level specialization in any of the field may be taken.

1.      Worldly Curriculum

             Reading, writing, mathematics arts, skills and vocational education

2.      Religious curriculum

           For General students Buddhist, Jain and Vedic religion were imparted. For the Bhikshu education, they had to study Buddhist literature namely Tripitak, Sulta, Vinay and Avidhamma pitak.

Methods of Teaching

            Teaching activities were carried out orally by lecture method, question answer method, logic, conference method. Activity oriented subjects were taught by demonstration, imitation and practice method. Students of higher classes were also given the opportunity of self study.

Discipline

            Both teacher and students must follow the rules of Buddhist Sanghs Strictly. Generally twice a month teacher and students met at a specific place for introspection and to confess. Corporal punishment was abhorred in that period.

Teachers

Qualification of teachers

1)      8 years of Bhikshu education after 12 years of higher education

2)      to adopt Buddhism

3)      life long celibacy

4)      strict adherence to the sangh discipline

These teachers had to make arrangements of boarding and food for their students, impart knowledge to them and guide them to overcome worldly attachments.

Students

            Students in Buddhist period were termed as Shraman or Samner. They had to compulsorily reside in Maths and vihars. They had to get up early in the morning before teachers and had to make arrangements for their morning prayers. Students unable to pay fees for higher education had to contribute manual service.

Teacher- Taught relationship

            Teachers were like father figure to students. They generally looked after the administration of maths and vihars and organized teaching work while students carry out the different tasks as advised by their teachers.

Other aspects of Education

·        They are taken steps to give mass education

·        Women education was encouraged

·        More importance to vocation education

·        Education of different religion is imparted to develop religious tolerance among people.

Conclusion

            In retrospect we may say that the foundation of modern Indian system of education was laid down in Vedic system of education but the complete structure that is central administration, school education, group teaching, was laid in the Buddhist system of education

ISLAMIC SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Introduction

            During medieval period Muslim rulers started a new system of education which is popularly known as Maktab-Madarsha system Muslim system of education. Side by side the old Pathashala system also continued for Hindu students. We shall discuss the Muslim system of Education in detail.

Aims of Education

            The main aim of Muslim education was to spread  Islamic Culture and religion.

1. Development of knowledge

            By knowledge they meant material knowledge and spiritual knowledge both and by spiritual knowledge they meant the knowledge of Islam.

2. Spread of Islamic Culture & Islamic Religion

            They emphasized on the education of Islamic culture and Islamic religion since they firmly believed in it. 

3. Development of character and morality

            They want to develop Islamic morality among the students. In case of any misconduct there was provision of repentance on the basis of Islamic rules.

4. Loyalty to the Government

            Since they are foreigner, they wanted to make Indian Loyal to the Government by education.

5. Education of Arts, skills and Vocations

            Since almost all the Muslim rulers were great lover of arts and crafts. They laid emphasis on the education of arts and crafts. Simultaneously education of different vocations was also organized which resulted in the economic growth of the country

Curriculum of Education

            Muslim education in the medieval period was divided into two levels-primary education and higher education.

Curriculum at the primary level

            Knowledge of alphabets, 30^th section of Quran, reading, writing, mathematics, letter and application writing and the way of conversation. Special practice in proper pronunciation and good handwriting were given to children. 

 Curriculum at the higher level

            The curriculum was divided into two categories namely-worldly and religious.

Worldly curriculum

Arabic and Persian languages and their Literature, Mathematics, Geometry, History, Geography, Economics, Political Science, Astrology. Islamic law, Unani Medicine and various arts, skills and vocations.

Religious curriculum

Quran, Islamic history, Islamic literature, Sufi literature and Islamic law.

Methods of Teaching

            In the Muslim education different teaching methods were adopted to teach different subjects at different levels. At primary level the teaching method adopted were imitation, practice and memorization. At the higher level speech, lecture and explanation method were adopted. To teach subject like philosophy and logic, logic method was used. Self study method was also adopted for higher level. To teach the activity oriented subjects, arts, skills and other vocations Demonstration, Experiment and practice method were adopted.

Discipline

            In the medieval period, discipline referred to obeying the teachers and compliance to the rules of maktabs and madarsha. Corporal punishment was given and at the same time there was a provision of reward for disciplined students.

TEACHERS: (USTAD)

            People well versed in Islamic religion and Scholars of Arabic or Persian or other subjects could become teachers. They receive high salary and they possessed high status in the society.

STUDENTS (SHAGIRD)

            The students lived under the strict control and discipline of the teachers. They lived in a highly authoritative and oppressive condition. They lead a sophisticated life in the hostels. In hostel they had very good infrastructure facilities and very delicious food were provided.

TEACHER-TAUGHT RELATIONSHIP

            Teacher loved their students and taught them with great concern. Students also respected their teachers and obeyed them devotedly. The students obeyed the teachers out of fear in medieval period.

Maktab

            Maktabs were primary school meant for small children. Maktab means a place where reading and writing is taught. Students were admitted in maktabs at the age of 4 years, 4 months and 4 days. At the time of admission, Bismillah ceremony was solemnized. In Maktab every student was made to learn verses of Quran, Islamic religion, Arabic, Persian and mathematics.

Madarsa

            Madarsa means to deliver speech. Higher Education was given in Madarsa. It is located either in state capital or in big cities. Contemporary kings and emperors contributed a lot in the establishment of Madarsas, their buildings, libraries and hostels etc. The chief aim of establishing these centers was the preservation and spread of Muslim religion and culture. The medium of instruction at these centers were Arabic and Persian languages.

OTHER ASPECT OF EDUCATION      

• The concept of mass education was something inconceivable in the medieval period, since their aim is to spread Islam and its culture. So only 6% of the population was literate.

• Both girls and boys were educated in Maktab and ladies were forbidden from entering Madarsa.
• They made best arrangements for the education of different arts, crafts and vocations in Madarsa.
• Only Islamic religion was taught.

Conclusion

            In retrospect one may say that Muslim education was an exotic plant in India. It failed to benefit the Indian to the extent to which an education system of a society should have been some of the good aspects like free education, State patronage, regular financial aid to educational institution have been practiced in the modern system of education.

BRITISH SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Introduction

            After the downfall of the Muslim rule, Bristishers came to India and established the East Indian company but soon the reign of the government reached the hands of the British parliament. Britishers ruled over India for about 150 years. During this period western science and literature made good progress through English medium.

CHARTER ACT OF 1813

            The Charter Act of the East India Company was renewed after every 20 years in the British parliament. In 1813, when the company’s charter again came for renewal in the parliament, most of the members in the parliament supported the movement led by the Christian missionaries. As a result three articles were added in the charter act of 1813.

1)      Missionaries of any European country will have full freedom to visit India to propagate Christianity and to expand education there 

2)      It will now be the responsibility of East India company to organize education in the areas under its rule.

3)      A sum of not less than one lakh of rupees each year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India  and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the science among the inhabitant of the British territories in India.

Anglicists - Orientalists controversy

            The Anglicist - Orientalists controversy had its origin in the charter Act 1813. The terms, ‘literature’ and the learned natives were not clearly defined in the section 43 of the charter Act, 1813.

Orientalist Group

            Mostly the senior and the experienced officials of the company belonged to this group. According to them the term ‘literature’ meant Indian literature and the term ‘learned natives’ meant the scholars of Indian literature

Anglicist Group

            This group contained mostly the young officials of the company. For them, the term ‘literature’ and learned natives in the Charter Act, 1813 meant Western literature and the learned natives of the western literature respectively.

MACAULAY MINUTE (1835)

            The Anglicists and orientalists controversy could not be solved even after 20 years in the new charter Act of 1833. On June 10, 1834 Lord Macaulay came to India as a law member of the Governor General’s council. Lord William Bentick the then Governor General, appointed him the president of the public instructions and asked him to render his advise on three points -first –how to spend Rs. 10 lakh per annum on education second to define the terms ‘literature’ and ‘learned native’ and third to solve the anglicists orientalists controversy Macaulay Submitted his report on 1835. in that he mentioned.

1)      the word ‘literature’ meant only English literature and not Sanskrit or Arabic or Persian literature

2)      The word ‘learned natives’ meant a scholar who is learned in the Locke’s philosophy, Milton’s poetry that is English literature.

WILLIAM BENTICK RESOLUTION

            Lord Bentik seriously went through the Macaulay’s report and declared the new education policy of the British Government on March 7. 1835. The major declarations of this policy are

1)      All government fund appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed on English education alone.

2)      The educational institutions of Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian shall not be closed down. The economic grants for their teachers salary and students scholarship will continue as before.

3)      In future no expenditure will be made on the printing and publication of oriental literature.

4)      The money so saved will be spend on the education of the English language, literature and Western knowledge and science.

DOWNWARD FILTRATION THEORY

            This theory meant, “Education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop the education should go to the common public so that at due time it may take the form of a vast stream which remained watering desert of the society for long times and high class of people should be educated and common people  gain influence from them.”

Its Basic Causes:

1. The company needed various types of workers to run the business and government. They wanted to have cheap servants who work in different capacities.
2. The government did not have enough money to take the responsibility of educating the masses.
3. If the standard of living and ideas of the people of higher classes in society could be changed through the English education then the people of the lower classes also be influenced and they shall grow loyal to the British government.
4. If educated high class people are given higher posts in government services then naturally they will use their influence for controlling the masses from going against British government.
5. After educating some people, the responsibility of education could be left to them.

WOOD’S  DESPATCH (1854)

Introduction

            The company has to take orders after every twenty years from the British parliament and in each order something was written about the education in India. Therefore when time for the charter of 1853 came, the directors of the company thought for laying down a definite policy in regard to educational matters of India. So a parliamentary committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in India. As Mr. Wood was chairman of the Board of Control, so the declaration was Christianized as ‘Wood’s Educational Despatch’.

THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE DESPATCH ARE AS FOLLOWS

1        The acceptance of Educational Responsibility: The Despatch clearly accepted that the responsibility of education in India lies in British Government.

2         The aim of education: The aim of education is to raise intellectual fitness and moral character.

3        Courses of study: Mr. Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended them as subjects of study in regular Institutions. Finally, like Macaulay, he had also recognized the usefulness of Western knowledge for Indians.

4        The Medium of Instruction: The Despatch says that due to dearth of course books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English.

5        Department of Public Instruction: The Despatch declared that in all the provinces, the department of public Instruction should be set up. Its highest official should be designated as the Director of Public Instruction, and he should be assisted by Deputy Director, Inspector and Deputy Inspector of schools.

6         Establishment of Universities: The Despatch has suggested for the setting up of the Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

7        Establishment of Regular Institutions: The Despatch emphasized on the graded schools as follows, primary schools, middle schools, high schools, colleges, universities.

8        Extension of Public Education: As ‘Filtration Theory’ failed, so Wood emphasized the useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable to gain such an education. So increase of primary, middle and high schools was emphasized. In order to co-ordinate education at these various levels it was suggested to have scholarships and implement other schemes.

9        Grant-in-aid system: The Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid System for the institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He has also suggested that the rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the levels          practiced in England.

10    Training of the Teachers: They suggested to open training schools in every province of India, as they are in England was expressed in the Despatch. This was done, so that teaching work may be conducted properly and efficiently.

11    Education of Women: He threw light on women education too and praising the persons engaged in this pious work, he suggested for its further encouragement through Grant-in-aid and other measures. He has also approved the declaration of Governor General that the Government should favorably assist the female education in India.

12    Muslim Education: Concerning Muslim education, Mr. Wood has said that Muslims are too backward in education and they should be encouraged to gain more education and efforts should be made in this direction.

13    Vocational Education: They paid more attention to the vocational education and suggested that schools and colleges should be set up at suitable places to provide vocational education.

14    Encouragement of the Oriental Education: Though the report has supported the western education through English medium for the Indians, yet it has recommended for the development of Indian literature and suggested that the books of western literature and science should not only be translated in these languages, but original books should also be caused to be written, and for the purpose the writers should be rewarded and encouraged.

15    Education and Service: In this reference, Mr. Wood has clearly said: A) While selecting the candidates for Government service their academicals qualification should be considered well.  B) Academically, high qualified persons should be preferred more than the others for government services.

Conclusion

            Since the Wood’s Despatch has contributed much to the organization and stabilization of the present Indian educational system, it is called ‘A valuable Contribution to the history of Indian Education.

IndiaN Education Commission

Or

Hunter’ s commission (1882)

Introduction

            Lord Rippon came to India on February 3, 1882. He appointed the first Indian Education commission. Mr. William Hunter, a member of the viceroy’s Executive council, was the chairman of this commission. It came to be popularly known as ‘Hunter’s commission’.

TERMS OF REFERENCE OF THE COMMISSION

The commission was to make the following enquiries

1)      condition of primary education and the methods of its expansion

2)      Position of State institutions and its importance

3)      Position of missionary institutions in general

4)      Attitude of government towards private enterprises.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF HUNTER COMMISSION

1.      PRIMARY EDUCATION

The policies of the Primary Education

Ø      Primary education should be useful for general life of the people and the subjects which are helpful for him in his practical life should be included.

Ø      Medium of instruction should be vernacular or Indian languages.

Ø      Government should make a constant effort for its progress, expansion and development.

Ø      Primary education should aim not only at preparing the students to enter into higher education but it should aim at spreading public education all right.

CURRICULUM

            State should have a free hand to frame the curriculum. In spite of this recommendation the commission said that physics, Agriculture, first-aid, Banking, Geometry subjects that are of practical value in life ought to be included in the curriculum of the primary education.

FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION

ü      It suggested that the local bodies and provincial government should give some aid for this.

ü      Finances for the schools in the villages and cities should be separated.

ü      Local funds for education should in no case be sent on secondary or higher education.

ü      The commission had recommended that the provincial Government shall give grant for primary education to the extent of 1¹/2 of the local fund for education or 1/3 of the entire expenditure on this item.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRIMARY INSTITUTIONS

            The commission recommended that In order to raise the standard of the primary institutions, the teachers should be properly trained.

INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

v     No restriction should be imposed for admission to such institutions.

v     Government should encourage such institutions.

v     Such institutions may voluntarily hand over administration to the Municipal Boards and District Boards.

v     The government should not interfere in their curriculum in any way and special financial aid for inclusion of subject of practical value in life may be given by the government.

v     Poor students should be given stipends and scholarships.

v     Proper arrangement for the training of the teachers of these institutions should also be made.

 SECONDARY EDUCATION

«     The Government should give the administration and organization of secondary education into hands of efficient and able Indians.

«     The commission recommended two types of curriculum called Curriculum A & B.

«     Curriculum A was to have subjects that were to be useful for higher study.

«     Curriculum B was to have vocational, occupational and practical subjects.

«     English should continue as medium of instruction.

HIGHER EDUCATION

«     They recommended to have varied and vast curricula so that the students can select the subjects of their choice and aptitude.

«     Grant-in-aid is given to the colleges by considering its expenditure, number of teachers, efficiency and local need.

«     Meritorious & promising students may be sent to foreign countries for higher education on Government scholarship.

«     Teachers who have received education in European Universities are preferred for appointment.

«     Private colleges should be authorized to receive lesser fee as compared to Government colleges.

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

«     They recommended to increase the number of inspectors in every province and Indians to be appointed on the post of District inspectors of schools

SYSTEM OF GRANT-IN -AID

«     Changes and reform should be made in the rule of grant-in-aid system according to the requirement of all the institutions

«     All the changes must be send to the managers of aided institutions in their vernacular languages.

«     Special educational officers should be appointed to give counsel to the managers of Government aided institutions

EDUCATION OF THE WOMEN

«      Free education, appointment of lady Teachers and lady Inspectresses

«      Liberal Grant-in-aid system

«      Different curriculum for girls

«      Decent arrangements of Hostels

«      Special arrangements for education of ‘Parda’ observing ladies.

MUSLIM EDUCATION

«     Effort must be made to popularize Muslim education

«     Special funds should be allocated for it

«     More scholarships should be given for Muslim students

«     In government appointments, Muslims should be given proportionate representation. 

EDUCATION OF HARIJANS AND BACKWARD CLASS.

«     All the schools run by the Government, municipalities and local boards should admit children of Harijans and Backward class.

«     Special schools should be open for them, where there was an objection raised to the admission of these Harijans and Backward children.

«     School teachers must take judicious effects to remove caste prejudices.

EDUCATION OF ABORIGINALS AND HILL TRIBES.

«     Government was expected to take up the responsibility of educating aboriginals and Hill tribes.

«     Free education and the subjects taught should be of the most elementary character.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

«     Religious education of any sort should not be given in the public schools.

«     Religious education may be imparted in the private institutions and the government shall have nothing to do with it.

Conclusion

            The Hunter commission was appointed mainly to study the problem and development of primary education. But they made suggestions in regard to the secondary, higher women and modern education. It was on the basis of suggestions of the commission a network of the primary schools were spread throughout the country and the secondary and higher education received a great impetus.

Wardha Scheme of Education

(or) Basic Education (1937)

Introduction

            The Government of India act, 1935 brought an end to diarchy in the Indian provinces. In 1937, popular Governments were established in the provinces and out of the 11 provinces 6 had congress ministers. The congress ministers at this juncture were faced with a dilemma. On one hand they wanted to execute the Gandhian plan of education and on the other they wanted to enforce compulsory and pre-primary education. However Mahatma Gandhi, father of the Nation presented a new scheme of education and gave a lead in the direction.

ALL- INDIA NATIONAL EDUCATION CONFERENCE

            In the Harijans of October 2, 1937, Gandhiji wrote an article about convening an All – India National Educational conference on October 22, 23, 1937. This is also known as Wardha Educational conference and it was held under the president of Gandhiji himself. Eminent Educationists, national leaders, Social reformers and provincial ministers of education took part in the deliberations of conference.

            After a good deal of discussions, the following resolution were passed

1)      Free and compulsory education be provided for 7 years on a nation wide- scale.

2)      Medium of instruction be the mother tongue.

3)      The process of education should center round some form of manual and productive work

4)      The conference accepts that this system of education will be gradually able to cover the remuneration of the teachers.

DR. ZAKIR HUSSAIN COMMITTEE, 1937

            In order to give a final shape to the resolutions passed in the All India National Education conference, Wardha a committee was formed under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain, then the Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia University. The committee submitted its report in two parts. The first report was presented in Dec, 1937. It defined the principles, curriculum, administration and the supervision work of Wardha education scheme. The second report was presented in April 1938. It enumerated the correlation between the basic handicrafts and others subjects of the curriculum.

OUTLINES OF THE SCHEME OF EDUCATION

1)      The duration of the course of basic education is 7 years. It aims at imparting free and compulsory education to the boys and girls from age of 7to 14years.

2)      Mother tongue will be the medium of instruction and teaching of English shall have no place in curriculum

3)      The entire education shall centre round some Basic craft, which shall be selected in accordance with the needs of the children and the locality.

4)      Goods produced by the children should be utilized and profit so earned to meet the expenditure of the schools.

5)      Education of the craft to be given in such a way that the children may earn their livelihood from it.

6)      In the education of the crafts, the economic importance as well as its social and scientific importance should be given place.

AimS of Basic Education

«     Education should develop the qualities of an ideal citizen in the child, socially, politically, economically and culturally.

«     Education should develop love for Indian culture in the hearts of the educands.

«     All round development of the personality was considered ie it must develop a child intellectually, socially, physically, morally, spiritually.

«     After completion of the education, they may be able to earn their livelihood and fulfil their needs.

«     Establishment of a society which was free from the evils and defects of the present day society.

Curriculum

Basic Craft-out of the following basic crafts, any one may be selected

·        Agriculture, spinning and weaving, woodcraft, fisheries, Leather work, Pottery or ceramics, fruit preservation or Gardening, any other craft according to the Geographical environment of the locality.

·        Mother tongue, Mathematics, Social studies, General Science, Nature study, Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Elementary Hygiene, Astronomy, Life stories of eminent scientists and inventories, Art (music or painting), Hindi, Home science-Girls, Physical Education.

TEACHERS

«     It emphasis on appointing female teachers in place of male teachers at the primary level.

«     It is necessary to appoint only trained teachers.

«     Long-tern training (3years) and short term training (1 year) should be given.

TIME-TABLE

            In the time-table of the basic scheme of education, it was thought that boys shall have to devote 5 hours and a half for their study. It was also considered necessary to work for about 288 days in the year.

METHODS OF TEACHING

«     Education is imparted through activities and in short period of time the students are given knowledge of various and varied subjects.

«     Emphasis on activity based education

Conclusion

             In retrospect it may be said that theoretically Basic education seems very attractive but practically it is a total failure. Gandhiji anticipated that the education of crafts and skills would help make education self supporting however just the reverse happened. The result was sheer wastage of raw material, time, energy and money. But some of the aspects of basic education still have relevance like-education through mother tongue and the activity oriented education. It is good for any country and therefore for India too.

INITIAL EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE EUROPEAN CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES

Introduction

            India has been a centre of attraction to foreigners since ancient period. In 1948, Vasco-de-Gama, discovered the sea route to India. 1510 they influenced the sea route. Nearly for 100 years they dominated. There was a clash between European and British traders regarding establishment in trade British succeeded. Portuguese Christian missionaries were the pioneers to introduce modern system of education. The French and Danish missionaries also continued but at the end British missionaries succeeded everyone. Let us see the chronological order of introducers of modern system of education.

Portuguese traders and the Portuguese Christian missionaries were the first to enter India. They were followed by the British, Dutch, French and the Danish traders and Christian missionaries. But ultimately it were the British who succeeded in establishing themselves in India.

1. Educational work of the Portuguese Christian Missionaries

            In 1498 Vasco-de-Gama, the Portguese sailor discovered the sea route to India. In 1510 the Portuguese established their rule over Goa. In 1556 they set up a printing press in Goa. In 1575 they established a Jesuit college in Goa. In 1577 St. Ann College at Bandra near Bombay. Portuguese traders gradually established trading centers in India. Portuguese were establishing trading as well as propagation of Christianity, culture and educational institutions. Among those two outstanding Portuguese missionaries namely.

“Saints Francis Xavier and Robert-de-nobli” They  traversed on foot to far-off places in India propagated Christianity and Educational Institutions. Portuguese established primary schools first. They taught Portuguese, Latin, local language, mathemetics, grammar, logic, logic crafts, music and education of Christianity. They started printing religious books and text books in their own press. Textbooks, clothing and food were provided freely to the poor students. As jurisdiction of Portuguese traders increased so the amount of missionaries also increased. Started primary schools in Daman, Diu, Hoogly, Chatgaon, Cochin and Bombay. Started modern primary education and modern higher education in India. Akbar impressed by the Jesuit fathers and established a Jesuit college at Agra. But the Portuguese’s cast their eyes on Delhi. Emperor Shahjahan drove them out in 1662. But the Jesuit’s domination over Goa continued. Portuguese are regarded as the founder of European system of education in India.

2. Educational work of the Dutch Christian missionaries

            Dutch traders from Holland entered India in the mid of 17^th century. They established trading centers along the sea cost in Chinsura and Hoogly in Bengal and Nagapattinam and Billipattm in Madras. Dutch missionaries had also missionaries accompanied them. They established primary schools to educate children of both, the Dutch and Indian citizens working in Dutch factories as well as Indians also. They taught Dutch, local languages, geography, mathematics and local arts and skills on European pattern in these schools. They refrained from making these schools the centre of religious education. “Due to enmity with the British” they had to leave India soon.

3. Educational work of the French Christian Missionaries

            The French traders entered into India in 1667. They too had brought French Christian missionaries. French established factories in Mahe, Yanam, karaikal, Chandernagore and Pondicherry. They established primary schools near their factories. In the hands of Missionaries the schools were entrusted. The medium of education was French and local languages. French and Indian teachers were appointed in the schools. Educaton of Christian religion, Frech and was compulsory. Christian missionary was inevitably appointed in each school to instruct religious education. Established education in secondary school in Pondicherry. Faced the enmity with British people in three Carnatic wars they had to leave India. Back to square one British took over the position.

3.      Educational work of the Danish Christian Missionaries

In 1680 the Danish traders and missionaries reached India. They established their factories in Serampore, Travancore, Tanjore and Thrichirapalli. They too in line with the thinking of previous missionaries i.e nothing but propagation of Christianity. To propagate christiaity they established primary schools in Travancore, Tanjore and Madras and the organization of the schools were given to the missionaries. The medium was local language and education of Christianity was compulsory. They translated bible into Tamil language and set up printing press to print Bible in Tamil. They converted 5000 Tamilians into Christians. In 1716, they established a Teacher Training College in Travancore, pioneer of starting teacher training college in India. The medium was multi-lingual. They failed to succeed  in trade and commerce and at last sold the factories to British people and returned to their country, Denmark.

4.      Educational work of the British Christian Missionaries

They have contributed a lot to the development of modern system of English Education. East India company came to India 1613. Every British ship was accompanied by a Missionary. The only aim the missionaries had to propagate Christianity and British culture. They made Bengal their centre for this work. They started this work in two methods; one through education, other is service to the poor and infirmed. The missionaries were supported by Britain and East India company for financial assistance and patronage.

They established many charity based schools in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. There were two types of this schools. The first, medium of education was English and second, the medium was local languages. But the education of Christianity was compulsory to both types of schools. Missionary work was bit slower in the beginning. After the Charter Act 1695, East India Company permitted missionary fathers to run schools in the British cantonments. As a result missionaries took up the task and established hundreds of primary schools in Bengal, Bombay and Madras (1731).

            They established secondary schools in Madras. Education of Christianity was made compulsory in all these schools. Simultaneously East India Companies hand soared high due to the internal conflicts between the emperors of India. There was a bill against propagating religion in schools. By that way missionaries established a lot of schools in various places in India. There were three Christian controversial missionaries who published a book titled to Address to Hindus and Muslims. In that book they expressed their own views and the experiences with the people who practice Hinduism and Islam. General Lord Minto arrested the missionary, seized all the rights of the press and banned the books. (Hindus are superstitious and ignorant and prophet mohammed as false prophet).

To oppose this act by the General, two groups were formed in British parliament. One group supported the act and other against. In 1813, missionaries were given permission to visit India without any restriction to organize education. Even though Christian missionaries established institutions to propagate Christianity in India, they have contributed an enormously contributed for the development to the field of education in India.

Conclusion

            As we had discussed from the beginning all these Christian missionaries landed in India with an aim of proclaiming the Word of God and they remarkably contributed a lot to the field of education. They designed a system of education in India. They fixed the curriculum, prepared textbook, method of teaching and published them. They introduced time-table, class system and examination system for class promotion. East India Company had two ideas in this context 1. Propagate Christianity 2. Educate Indians. When they established themselves ruler of the country they executed their plan and accomplished it till 1857.